Starting in 1962, the Soviet Union used the name Kosmos for spacecraft that remained in Earth orbit, even if they were originally intended for interplanetary missions. If a planetary probe failed to leave Earth orbit—often due to incomplete engine burns—it would be redesignated as Kosmos. This classification practice is confirmed by both Soviet and independent sources. Let’s learn more about it.
Why Call them Kosmos?
The Soviets called their Earth-orbiting satellites Kosmos (which literally means “Cosmos” in Russian) as a kind of catch-all label for spacecraft that didn’t make it to their intended destination, especially when things went wrong. It was like their “oops, something went wrong but we’re still going to keep it classified” name.
The name Kosmos started in 1962, and it was used for satellites that either malfunctioned or were designed to orbit Earth but not go further. If a probe meant for deep space or a planetary mission failed to leave Earth’s orbit—whether because of a misfiring engine or an incomplete burn—they’d slap on the Kosmos designation. It let them keep the mission low-key without drawing too much attention to the failure.
In a way, it was the Soviet version of putting a nice, neutral name on a mission that didn’t quite go as planned. Rather than admit it was a failure, they’d just call it Kosmos—which is a little poetic, right? Like, “It’s still part of the cosmos, just… not in the way we thought.“
A Little History
The Soviet Union launched its first satellites under names such as Sputnik, Polyot (1963), Elektron (1964), Proton (1965), and Molniya (1965). However, since Kosmos 1 on 16 March 1962, most satellites have carried the Kosmos designation. This label applies broadly, covering nearly all Soviet and later Russian military satellites, many scientific satellites, and spacecraft that failed on interplanetary missions but remained in Earth orbit. By January 2021, a total of 2,548 Kosmos satellites had been launched.
The Kosmos series includes optical and radar reconnaissance satellites, communications and navigation systems, early warning and missile defense spacecraft, anti-satellite weapons and targets, technology demonstrators, and nuclear-powered satellites. Some scientific programs, such as Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik, Bion, and Meteor, also received the designation. Importantly, only Earth-orbiting satellites are named Kosmos.
If an interplanetary mission’s booster failed, leaving the probe stranded in Earth orbit, it too was renamed Kosmos. Control systems for 152 such satellites were developed by NPO Electropribor in Kharkiv.
The First Kosmos Satellites
The Kosmos program began in 1962, marking the Soviet Union’s shift to using a single designation for a wide range of satellites. The first launches focused on studying the ionosphere, radiation, and upper atmosphere, as well as testing military and scientific technologies. Below are the first eight missions, which you can explore in more detail using the Complete List of Sputnik Missions page.
- Kosmos 1 (Sputnik 11) – Launched 16 March 1962, mass 285 kg. First in the Kosmos series; studied the ionosphere using radio instruments.
- Kosmos 2 (Sputnik 12) – Launched 6 April 1962, mass 285 kg. Conducted further ionosphere research with similar instruments.
- Kosmos 3 (Sputnik 13) – Launched 24 April 1962, mass 330 kg. Studied upper atmosphere and space environment; used telemetry with onboard memory.
- Kosmos 4 (Sputnik 14) – Launched 26 April 1962, mass 4,610 kg. Measured atmospheric and space radiation, including effects of U.S. nuclear tests.
- Kosmos 5 (Sputnik 15) – Launched 28 May 1962, mass 280 kg. Focused on atmospheric and space environment studies with telemetry systems.
- Kosmos 6 (Sputnik 16) – Launched 30 June 1962, mass 355 kg. A DS military satellite built in Ukraine; used for research and component testing.
- Kosmos 7 (Sputnik 17) – Launched 28 July 1962, mass 4,610 kg. Studied radiation to ensure safety for the Vostok 3 and 4 crewed missions.
- Kosmos 8 (Sputnik 18) – Launched 18 August 1962, mass 337 kg. Another DS military satellite from Ukraine; used for military and scientific experiments.
Other Soviet Kosmos satellites
Planetary and Lunar Missions
Kosmos 21 – Failed Venus probe.
Kosmos 24 – Failed Venus probe.
Kosmos 60 – Failed lunar lander (Luna).
Kosmos 96 – Failed Venus lander.
Kosmos 111 – Failed first lunar orbiter attempt.
Kosmos 159 – Failed lunar gravity probe.
Kosmos 167 – Failed Venus lander.
Kosmos 300 – Failed lunar sample return.
Kosmos 305 – Failed lunar sample return.
Kosmos 359 – Failed Venus lander.
Kosmos 419 – Failed Mars orbiter.
Kosmos 482 – Failed Venus lander; fragments fell in New Zealand.
Kosmos 47 – First uncrewed Voskhod test.
Kosmos 57 – Second uncrewed Voskhod test.
Kosmos 133 – First uncrewed Soyuz test.
Kosmos 140 – Second uncrewed Soyuz test.
Kosmos 146 – First uncrewed test of L1 Moon-flyby craft.
Kosmos 154 – Second L1 Moon-flyby test.
Kosmos 186 & 188 – Soyuz tests; first automatic docking.
Kosmos 212 & 213 – Soyuz tests; second automatic docking.
Kosmos 238 – Final Soyuz test series.
Kosmos 382 – Uncrewed test of LOK lunar-orbital craft.
Kosmos 638 – First uncrewed Soyuz 7K-TM test for ASTP.
Kosmos 672 – Second Soyuz 7K-TM ASTP test.
Kosmos 670 – First uncrewed Soyuz-VI/7K-S military test.
Kosmos 772 – Second Soyuz-VI/7K-S test.
Kosmos 869 – Third Soyuz-VI/7K-S test.
Kosmos 929 – First uncrewed TKS flight.
Kosmos 1001 – First uncrewed Soyuz-T test.
Kosmos 1074 – Second Soyuz-T test.
Kosmos 1267 – Second TKS flight.
Kosmos 1443 – Third TKS flight.
Kosmos 1669 – Controlled Progress cargo test.
Kosmos 1686 – Fourth TKS flight.
Biosatellites
Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms—such as plants, animals, or microorganisms—into space to study the effects of microgravity, radiation, and spaceflight conditions on biological systems. They help scientists understand how life responds to space environments, providing data critical for future crewed missions.
Kosmos 110 – First Soviet biosatellite; biological payload.
Kosmos 605 – First Bion biosatellite, carried organisms.
Meteorology and Earth Science
Kosmos 122 – First Soviet weather satellite.
Kosmos 144 – Early meteorology satellite, precursor to Meteor.
Kosmos 156 – Early meteorology satellite, also predating Meteor.
Nuclear-Powered and Military Reconnaissance Satellites
Kosmos 367 – Early US-A satellite with nuclear reactor.
Kosmos 954 – Nuclear-powered US-A; failed, debris scattered over Canada (1978).
Kosmos 1402 – Nuclear-powered satellite; failed.
Kosmos 1818 – First RORSAT with Topaz-1 reactor.
Kosmos 1867 – Second RORSAT with Topaz-1.
BOR-4 Spaceplane Tests
Kosmos 1374 – First BOR-4 test, Spiral shuttle prototype.
Kosmos 1445 – Second BOR-4 test.
Kosmos 1517 – Third BOR-4 test.
Kosmos 1614 – Fourth BOR-4 test.
Other Military and Experimental Missions
Kosmos 557 – Failed DOS-type station from Salyut program.
Kosmos 1275 – Broke up in orbit; possibly first case of debris destruction.
Kosmos 1375 – Target satellite destroyed by Kosmos 1379.
Kosmos 1378 – ELINT (signals intelligence) satellite.
Kosmos 1408 – Destroyed in Russian anti-satellite weapon test.
Kosmos 1870 – Uncrewed flight of Almaz military station.
Kosmos 2251 – Collided with Iridium 33 satellite (2009).
Kosmos 2441 – First Persona spy satellite; failed in orbit.
Kosmos 2479 – Final Oko US-KMO early-warning satellite; last Proton-K launch.
Kosmos 2480 – Kobalt-M spy satellite; last Soyuz-U launch.
International and Cooperative Missions
Kosmos 782 – First Kosmos mission with U.S. involvement.
